1I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Ross King (University of British Columbia), who read an earlier draft of this paper and provided editorial help. I also thank two anonymous reviewers for their meticulous comments, which I found very helpful. Mr. Leif Olsen proofread the text. 2The Romanization systems used in this paper are McCune-Reischauer for Korean and pinyin for Chinese.
NOTABLE TOPICS DISCUSSED IN PKSK STUDIES
In
In terms of story plot,
Scholars generally agree that
Scholars also differ in their opinions on which main figures generate the central conflicts in the story—whether they are Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ, Kangsoe and the
Scholars have shown distinct or even opposing interpretations of these significant topics in understanding
3Cho, “The General Nature of Pansori,” 188. 4Pihl, The Korean Singer of Tales, 3. 5With regard to Sin Chae-hyo’s contribution to the development of P’ansori, Marshall Pihl notes, “Shin Chae-hyo [Sin Chae-hyo], as an outsider, made a significant contribution to the development of P’ansori in his patronage and training of kwangdae [P’ansori performers], consolidation and editing of extant textual materials, exposition of theory, and composition of P’ansori itself.” Pihl, 35. 6Pihl, 65–66. 7Many scholars also agree that there was more than one prototype story for PKSK.
KANGSOE AND ONGNY?: IDENTITIES
Sŏ Chong-mun asserts that Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ should be understood as itinerant homeless people (
Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, however, questions the couple’s identity as itinerant homeless people, asserting that they were originally urban idlers, especially in the case of Kangsoe.10 Kim suggests Kangsoe’s case is distinct from that of itinerant peasants who once owned their own small plots of land. Given that, throughout the
Kim’s evasive conclusion is due to his belief that there
I suggest that to understand Kangsoe’s identity better, we should observe how Kangsoe describes himself in the text before attempting to consider the social, historical, and political background of
8This interpretation by Sŏ Chong-mun can be seen in his various essays on PKSK, all with slight modifications on essentially the same theme. 9A number of scholars accept Sŏ’s interpretation (sometimes with their own modifications) or at least refer to him when discussing the protagonists’ identities in PKSK. 10See Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka wa kigoemi,” 53–59. 11See, for example, the scene where Kangsoe challenges the changsŭng by saying that he has been the hero of the pleasure quarters. Kang Han-yŏng, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka (Sŏngdu-pon B),” in Sin Chaehyo P’ansori sasŏl yŏsŏt madang chip, 436. 12See Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka wa kigoemi,” 50, 57–60. 13Ibid., 51 and passim. 14Ibid., 80. 15Ibid., 70–80. 16It is rather surprising that some scholars, after pointing out that PKSK has a number of prototype stories and has been revised by many P’ansori singers, including Sin Chae-hyo, are still attempting to find a consistent theme or universal theory with which to interpret PKSK. For example, Kim, although he refers to Bakhtin in his essay, does not pay attention to Bakhtin’s ideas of “multiplicity of styles” and “nonexistence of a one-voiced novel.” See Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, ix, for discussion on this topic.
KANGSOE AS A TRAGIC HERO: KANGSOE DESCRIBED BY HIMSELF
Scholars generally agree that Kangsoe is portrayed as a person with a distorted temper. As the narrator says, Kangsoe is “a profligate like no other under Heaven” (
However, Kangsoe’s evaluation of himself is strikingly different from that of the narrator; Kangsoe thinks of himself as a heroic figure who has missed his time. In other words, it is not Kangsoe who is to blame for his deeds, but the wrong society and wrong time in which he finds himself. When asked to cut firewood, he laments, “Alas! What nonsense! People say that when a Tatar horse breaks its waist it is employed to carry manure, and that when a courtesan is ruined she is forced to sell cheap wine in a tacky tavern. Never thought it would ever happen to me. How can one make a romantic guy like me gather firewood?”18 Moreover, the reason Kangsoe chooses not to gather firewood is also because he “does not feel like raking together fallen branches like some unripe youth.”19 He also compares himself with numerous legendary Chinese heroes. When he shouts at the
Kangsoe not only excels in military arts (
Here we observe a huge gap between the narrator’s view of Kangsoe and Kangsoe’s own self-description. Given the fact that
More importantly, it can be verified that Sin Chae-hyo remains the sole compiler/rewriter who is known to have made critical revisions to the extant version of the narrative text of
While it is obvious that
The most basic element shared by Kangsoe and Sin Chae-hyo is that both are discontent with the social situations and conditions surrounding them. Sin Chaehyo, restricted by his social standing as the son of a minor local official (
Sin’s escape from reality was accomplished through his devotion to
17Kang Chin-ok, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka” (hereafter PKSK), 431. 18Ibid., 432. All translations are mine. I translated oipchangi as “a romantic guy.” Although this term has frequently been used to blame someone as a profligate, it was also used to refer to a romantic fellow who understands fengliu (p’ungnyu in Korean) when used by an idle youth of the gentry (hallyang). According to Chang Kilsan by Hwang Sŏg-yŏng, there were quite strict and complex rules to follow among oipchangi themselves in late Chosŏn. Anyone who violated these rules was shunned by both the pleasure-quarters frequenters and courtesans. These rules in certain respects resemble the chivalric code of medieval Europe in their treatment of ladies in terms of romantic affairs. Teptŭgi also shows his pride and nature as a Seoul hallyang when asked by Ongnyŏ for help. See PKSK, 470–71. This feature common to Kangsoe and Teptŭgi will be discussed in the following sections. 19Ibid., 434. 20Ibid., 436. 21See Chŏn, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka ŭi pigŭksŏng,” 115. Here, we can observe another striking resemblance between Sin Chae-hyo and Kangsoe in that they both “make much use of erudite Chinese phrases mixed together with references to classical events.” Pihl, 97. Also note that Sin’s comparisons of his favorite performers with the legendary Chinese literary figures in his Kwangdaeka (Song of the kwangdae) strikingly resemble Kangsoe’s comparison of himself to the legendary Chinese heroes. This feature common to Sin and Kangsoe will be discussed further in the following sections. 22PKSK, 449–50. 23See Ibid., 428. Kim Chong-ch’ŏl and Pak Kwan-su point out that these comparisons portend Kangsoe’s tragic death, since these kings are figures who ruined themselves by indulging in excessive sensual pleasure. See Kim, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka wa kigoemi,” 64; and Pak, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka ŭi sabip kayo tchaim,” 274. 24For a more detailed discussion of Sin Chae-hyo’s revision of P’ansori texts according to his ideology, see Kim Sŏk-pae, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi P’ansori chiwŏn hwaltong kwa kŭ han’gye,” 313–52. Kim argues that through comprehensive revision of the texts, Sin attempted to convey his own moralism and rationalism targeted at the contradictions of the society of his time. 25Cho Dong-il notes, “[PKSK] has not been passed down as P’ansori and only the narrative text recorded by Sin Jae-hyo [Sin Chae-hyo] survives today. It is noteworthy that there is no novel version of this P’ansori work.” See Cho, 230. 26Pihl notes, “Of the six songs represented in Shin Chae-hyo’s [Sin Chae-hyo’s] collection, only the “Song of Pyŏn Kangsoe” exists solely as a P’ansori libretto; the other five are extant in many variants, including both libretti and novels.” See Pihl, 65. 27As for the available libretti versions of PKSK other than the Sŏngdu edition, another one called the Kosu edition and its two partial copies exist. However, these texts are incomplete handwritten copies of the Sŏngdu edition with the final scene in the original libretto missing; all other parts of their texts are completely identical to the Sŏngdu edition, which confirms that the Sŏngdu edition is the only extant version of PKSK. For more details, see Kang Yun-jŏng, “Pak Tong-jin ch’angbon Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka yŏn’gu,” 90–91. 28PKSK was included among the P’ansori yŏsŏt madang (six works of P’ansori) by the late nineteenth century as verified in Sin’s P’ansori sasŏl chip (P’ansori libretti, 1866–84). However, it was soon dropped from the six works as verified in Yi Sŏn-yu’s Oga chŏnjip (Collection of five songs, 1933), possibly due to its licentiousness and its grotesqueness, which confirms the fact that Sin remains the final editor/rewriter of the PKSK narrative. See Pihl, 63–66; Cho, 229–31; and Chan E. Park, Voices from the Straw Mat, 72, for more details. 29Most scholars agree that all six P’ansori libretti/ballades extant now underwent revision at the hands of Sin Chae-hyo. Kim Chong-ch’ŏl and Pak Kwan-su both discuss the revision of PKSK by Sin. 30See Kang Han-yŏng, Sin Chae-hyo P’ansori chŏnjip, 4. Cited in Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik kwa P’ansori iron,” 162. 31Sŏ Chong-mun observes that although Sin obtained the nominal title of a government official by donating money, he was not able to act as a yangban in reality due to the conservative atmosphere of the “authentic” local yangban class in his hometown, Koch’ang. See Sŏ, “Sin Chaehyo ŭi segye insik,” 161–62. 32See, for example, PKSK, 432. Kangsoe shows his enmity toward all males in general. 33See Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 163. 34A similar example of the main character in a novel serving as the author’s alter ego can be found in Yesou puyan (Humble words of an old rustic), a Qing novel written by the unsuccessful degree candidate Xia Jingqu. The main character of the novel, Wen Suchen, is depicted as a Confucian superhero who excels in both literary skills and martial arts, just as Kangsoe does. Another critical similarity between Wen Suchen and Kangsoe is that Suchen also possesses superb skills in the bedchamber. He is depicted as a figure with enormous “yang energy.” With his excessive yang power, Suchen not only marries four concubines, but defeats grotesque yin monsters who use sexual licentiousness as their weapon. Martin Huang interprets Wen Suchen’s erudite and heroic image in the novel as Xia Jingqu’s alter ego. As a matter of fact, the most important task for Xia Jingqu as the author is to have his alter ego (Suchen) in the novel fulfill a lifelong obsession of his, namely, achieving success in the examination with all the fancy honors that attend this. For further arguments on Suchen being the alter ego of the author, see Huang, Literati and Self-Representation, 127; and Epstein, Competing Discourses, 231. It is particularly noteworthy that both Sin Chae-hyo and Xia Jingqu were frustrated scholars who were not given the opportunity to fulfill their dream of maintaining a successful career holding high office and produced novels whose main characters are frustrated heroes endowed with literary and martial skills. 35See Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 177; and Kim Sŏk-pae, 349. 36Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 167. 37PKSK, 428.
THE CONFLICT BETWEEN KANGSOE AND THE CHANGS?NG
Whether Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ are itinerant homeless people or urban idlers, it is obvious that they are rejected by society. Their decision to live in seclusion is due to the fact that they cannot live harmoniously with ordinary, settled people.38 Neither Kangsoe nor Ongnyŏ thinks their rejection by society is their fault. As discussed above, Kangsoe thinks he is underestimated and eventually develops hatred toward society, while Ongnyŏ’s hardships are depicted as a fate over which she has no control. Both face rejection, but Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ differ in their attitudes toward dealing with their situation. Kangsoe never compromises; he does not admit that it might be he who is wrong, and he is unwilling to change himself to fit into society. Ongnyŏ, however, shows a strong attachment to the pursuit of a happy life and struggles to survive in society.
Their distinct natures are also betrayed in their names. The name
Sino-Korean
In this context, it is quite natural for Kangsoe to challenge the
However, Chŏng Pyŏng-hŏn asserts that the
Kangsoe’s audacious challenge to authority is repaid with even harsher revenge. The scene of Kangsoe’s wrongful death and his curse is the section that has produced the most numerous debates (and misinterpretations) to date. Some think Kangsoe joins the male authority represented by the
Accordingly, Kangsoe wants to remain the only partner in Ongnyŏ’s romantic affairs. For Kangsoe, any men who approach Ongnyŏ after his death are representative of the authority trying to take away Kangsoe’s ultimate pride, whether they really belong to that authority or not.50 The fact that Kangsoe clings to Teptŭgi (the competitor most capable of taking away Ongnyŏ) until the last moment can be understood in this context. Consequently, Kangsoe’s curse upon Ongnyŏ can be understood as his curse on the authority endeavoring to take away his ultimate accomplishment. Kangsoe’s indomitable pride prevents him from admitting defeat at the hands of authority, as depicted by Kangsoe’s unyielding resistance until the very last moment.51 In short, as long as the unfair authority does not withdraw, Kangsoe’s resentment cannot cease.
38See PKSK, 430. Ongnyŏ persuades Kangsoe to live as a recluse, saying, “With your temper, you will eventually be killed if we continue to live in the city; and saving money will be impossible.” 39Refer to Mathews’ Chinese Dictionary, 1133. Interestingly, ong does not have other meanings. 40See John DeFrancis, ABC Dictionary, 185. Although there are quite a few Chinese characters whose Korean pronunciation is kang, those characters traditionally selected for names are quite limited; kang 剛 and kang 強 , the two most frequently used Chinese characters for a name, in fact have identical meanings. It can also be noted that soe in pure Korean means “iron” or “steel,” which often carries sexual connotations for male strength. 41Kangjik is often used to praise an official who is uncorrupted and upright. In other words, kangjik is an expression applied only to yangban of integrity. I assert that the inclusion of kang in his name, with kang’s multiple implications, shows that Kangsoe’s neglected talents might have the potential to be developed in a positive direction if given the opportunity. Of course, Sin Chae-hyo might have thought he deserved the same opportunity. 42It can be argued that there may have been different prototype names for Kangsoe. This does not affect the conclusion here, though, since my interpretation of the name Kangsoe is limited to Sin Chae-hyo’s version of PKSK. 43Surprisingly, no one has thus far paid attention to the meaning of the protagonists’ names in PKSK. It is common to decipher the implications of protagonists’ names in traditional Chinese fiction. For example, the title of Jin ping mei, one of the Four Masterpieces of the Ming novel, is “conventionally translated as ‘The Plum in the Golden Vase’ or ‘The Golden Lotus,’ but the primary reference in the title is to the three most important female characters of the novel.” See Rolston, ed., How to Read the Chinese Novel, xiii. 44Chŏn summarizes the discussions on the conflict between Kangsoe and the changsŭng. See Chŏn, 106–7. Kim Chong-ch’ŏl also introduces various discussions of the changsŭng and disapproves of all preexisting theories. See Kim, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka wa kigoemi,” 47–49. 45PKSK, 436. 46Chŏng Pyŏng-hŏn, 371–74. 47For example, see Chŏng Pyŏng-hŏn, 371. 48Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka wa kigoemi,” 50. Kim thinks a villain such as Kangsoe does not deserve to have a grudge to harass other males after his death. 49Pak Kwan-su, 286. 50Kangsoe shows his firm enmity toward his potential competitors in terms of romantic affairs when he decides to leave the city, saying, “I would rather starve for ten years than see those scamps trying to seduce my woman.” See PKSK, 430. 51As Kim Chong-ch’ŏl points out, according to the traditional concept of spirits, Kangsoe’s grudge should be relieved by proper prayer or sacrificial ceremonies (cf. footnote 48). However, Kangsoe’s unyielding resentment after his death reveals that his grudge is not something private but is a protest against social contradiction as a whole.
CONCLUSION: TEPT?GI AS ANOTHER ALTER EGO OF SIN CHAE-HYO
Kangsoe’s death is a turning point in
We have already observed that the ego and temper of Kangsoe resemble those of Sin Chae-hyo. Scholars also note that it is Sin Chae-hyo who bolstered and developed the lewdness and licentiousness in
Sin’s sense of polarity between the ideal and the real is clearly betrayed in his way of thinking. Lamenting that he did not meet with the right time and with better luck, Sin must have been aware that his status as a famous
Concerning this traditional, didactic conclusion to works of erotic fiction, Patrick Hanan notes, “The libertine’s adulterous adventures may enthrall the reader with their glimpse of forbidden pleasure, but
Teptŭgi is the character employed by Sin for this purpose. In other words, if we can compare Kangsoe as the alter ego of Sin in the ideal, Teptŭgi is his other alter ego in the real. It is notable that Teptŭgi is the only character who recognizes Kangsoe as a heroic figure, comparing Kangsoe with other tragic heroes who did not meet their time, such as Jing Ke and Xiang Yu.57 Teptŭgi also adds, “The most righteous man of all time! Who can console you but your most intimate friend! … You are the most gallant man in this world. Master of drinking and leader in the pleasure quarters! Your reputation can be found everywhere and there are none who do not fear you. Once wishing to live with flowerlike beauty for a hundred years, you never thought this ephemeral dew-like life would be gone in a day! Grieved and grudged, you surely cannot close your eyes!”58 Here we find a striking resemblance between Kangsoe’s evaluation of himself and Teptŭgi’s praise for him. In fact, Teptŭgi has never even met Kangsoe in the story. Even Ongnyŏ, who has the most intimate relationship with Kangsoe, does not understand the pride and ambition of Kangsoe as a gallant figure. As Teptŭgi mentions in his narration, none but Kangsoe’s most intimate friends can comprehend Kangsoe’s self-appreciation.59 It is obvious that Teptŭgi is a potential intimate of Kangsoe, as they share the feature of becoming Sin Chaehyo’s personifications in the
We have argued that Teptŭgi and Kangsoe, as the two polemic reflections of Sin Chae-hyo’s inner conflict, betray the realism and idealism of Sin, respectively. However, Sin chooses to return to reality for his conclusion. Sin’s conflict is so bitter that Kangsoe does not withdraw even after his corpse is cut into three pieces. Eventually, Sin makes the realistic version of his alter ego annihilate the idealistic version. The moment Teptŭgi grinds Kangsoe’s corpse into particles is in fact the moment Sin Chae-hyo grinds his ambitions and resentment into pieces, returning to his reality as a wealthy minor local official.
In his “narration of pulverizing” (
52Pak Chin-t’ae points out that although PKSK originally had lewdness to some extent, it is Sin Chae-hyo who developed the bold licentiousness in the narration of PKSK. See Pak Chin-t’ae, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka ŭi ŭmnansŏng chaego,” 297–321. Kim Chong-ch’ŏl also notes the sensuality of PKSK. See Kim, “Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka wa kigoemi,” 71, 74. 53For the theme of lewdness, see Pak Chin-t’ae’s article mentioned above. 54See Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 159–64. 55Ibid., 165. 56See Hanan, The Carnal Prayer Mat, viii (emphasis in original). 57PKSK, 486. 58PKSK, 486. 59The literati’s ceaseless desire to seek a friend who truly recognizes his talent and virtue has been one of the most popular and persistent topics in traditional Chinese and Korean literature. In premodern Chinese and Korean society where Neo-Confucianism functioned as the predominant ideology, many intellectuals believed that having a true zhiji (often translated as “soul mate” or “intimate companion”) is more important than obtaining wealth and fame. This notion is based on the famous saying “A shi 士 dies for one who appreciates his value [zhiji zhe 知己者 ], and a woman adorns herself for one who admires her [yueji zhe 樂己者 ].” Translation cited in Huang, 80. In this respect, Kangsoe is in a worse situation than Wen Suchen, whose four concubines make up his zhiji. In Yesou puyan, Suchen discovers a zhiji in each of his four future concubines when he learns about their various talents and eventually makes all four “soul mates” his concubines. However, Ongnyŏ, who struggles hard to make a living alone without Kangsoe’s help, does not share his grudge caused by society neglecting his talents, leaving Teptŭgi as the only figure who shares Kangsoe’s sentiment in the work. Also see Henry, “The Motif of Recognition in Early China,” 4– 30, for more discussion on the literati’s desire for recognition. 60See PKSK, 469. Also see footnote 18. 61PKSK, 488. That Teptŭgi almost died four times because of his attachment to lechery might be the confession of Sin Chae-hyo himself. Unfortunately, it is not clear whether Sin in fact had this experience. 62Hanan, viii.